Daily Life in France
During the French Revolution
and Napoleon's Reign
by G.C. van Uythoven, The Netherlands
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If we talk about marriage and daily life, we are shifting on to the terrain of a rather new scientific direction called 'family history'. This is a 'mix' of history, anthropology, sociology, demography, etc. Only in the last 15 years has this aspect of history been more intensively researched, and has led to revisions of earlier opinions and contractions. It is outside the scope of this article to look into this, but knowing this, one has to be very careful in his choice of sources.
A most useful book describing this topic is "La vie quotidienne au temps de Napoleon", by Jean Robiquet (Paris, 1942). This book is also translated in English; "Daily life in France under Napoleon", translated by Violet M. MacDonald (London, 1962). Although outdated it contains many useful citations, and gives you the feeling taking part in the daily life of that period. The main sources that I have used for this article can be found in the bibliography.
To cover this period, we have to set some boundaries. Daily life on the continent was not comparable with that in Britain. In Britain the proto-industrialisation and the forming of 'enclosures' in the countryside led to a total different development. This was even greater because of the continental system. The Netherlands and Belgium were greatly influenced by France; Belgium because during the whole period it was part of France, The Netherlands because it was first a French satellite as the Batavian Republic and the Kingdom of Holland, and from 1810 to 1813 as a part of France, forming 7 departments. Because of the above I will limit myself to France, Belgium and the Netherlands.
The period I will cover will be from roughly 1787 to 1815. Although to understand some developments I sometimes have to go somewhat back in time.
Partition
The development of daily life was not the same in the different classes of Napoleonic France, therefore I will make a partition in the following classes:
It may be clear that in reality it is not possible to put everyone exactly into one of these classes. Many were found to fit between classes, and it was also possible to move up or down to another class ('social mobility'). But for the scope of this article I will address these classes. Just keep in mind that the boundaries between the classes are not to clear.
Additionally, I will cover the state of the roads in France and the safety of travel.
Before the French Revolution the farmers had less and less land to farm on. There are many reasons for this: the dividing of the land between the sons, gifts of land to the church, purchasing by aristocrats, to name but a few. Eventually the amount of land owned by a household became to small to live from. The growing of potatoes - before this time mainly used to feed cattle - gave some short term respite. The farmers became peasants, and had to find other means of living. They found this in home industry. At the time of the French revolution home industry was already founded on a capitalist basis. A 'merchant-entrepreneur' delivered the raw materials to a household and bought the finished product for a fixed price. The household mostly had to provide themselves with the necessary tools and equipment. If the market was bad the entrepreneur simply stopped delivering raw materials or dropped the price. This was the so called 'putting-out system'.
When children were 6 or 7 years of age they were incorporated into the home industry: the little children had to brush the floor, collect wood, etc. Children of 9 to 12 years of age had to assist with spinning or knitting, and had to take care of the fire or do the washing, take care of the cattle, etc. Sometimes they were hired to others. Older children had to do the same work as grown-ups. In this way the children saw clearly the importance of their participation for the survival of the household. Because of this parents were reluctant to hire their children to others.
Also the women had to participate: the higher their labouring skills, the better their chance of a good marriage. But their contribution to the home industry made them also more independent. A special form of 'family wage economy' was the 'élevage humain'. In this form women took it on them to nurse and care for someone else's children. [1]
Although in nearly every class the 'nuclear family' [2] was the rule, the household participating in home industry became bigger: the households tried to combine their capacity and labouring skills to try to survive. This meant that members of the family or boarders were incorporated into the household. If it became impossible to survive, many found their way to the cities (especially Paris) or to Napoleon's armies.
Not everyone was happy to fight for Napoleon. At first the armies were not very large. In 1806 there were only 14,300 Parisians serving out of a population of 547,000. But Napoleon began recalling men who had been exempted or bought out, and started calling up the classes in advance. Many didn't answer the call-up and took flight to the rougher, mountainous and more thinly inhabited parts of the country. Others deserted en route to the depots or the battlefield. [3]
Deserters
A fact that still is overlooked by many is that from 1812 on, many troops and gendarmerie were employed to hunt down deserters which meant a constant and fatal drain on manpower. In the first months of 1804 not less then 10 flying columns, the so called 'garnisaires', were employed in the French countryside to hunt down deserters. These columns acted as if they were in enemy territory and spread terror amongst the inhabitants. But their task was very difficult as the deserters were extensively supported by the population.
Nevertheless, in 1812 they succeeded in capturing 60,000 deserters, who were sent to the Grande Armée. How many actually arrived is not known. In Russia De Ségur estimated the deserters at more than a thousand a day; Thiers declared that 150,000 men had already deserted before the Grande Armée crossed the Niemen. The number of Dutch soldiers taking part in the Grande Armée of 1812 is estimated at about 15,000 men. Only a few hundred returned from Russia.
King Louis throughout his reign refused to introduce conscription in Holland, much to the annoyance of Napoleon. In 1810, when Holland became part of France this changed, the Dutch class of 1811 had to produce 3,000 conscripts as did the class of 1808 had to produce 3,000 conscripts. Some of these conscripts had to form the coastal artillery, the remainder were destined for the Grande Armée. Beside these, Holland had to produce 40,000 men for the marine service. Half of them would be conscripts from the years 1794-1791, the other half would have to be sons of seamen, orphans and foundlings.
The idea of integrating orphans and foundlings into the armed forces was new. The idea came from Louis, who integrated into his guard a corps of 'Koninklijke Kweekelingen' (Royal Pupils), consisting of young men that had to be provided for by the government (orphans and foundlings). Napoleon liked the idea, because it would save him money and would deliver him soldiers in an easy way. He even integrated a corps of pupils into his own guard, popularly known by the name of the Guard of the King of Rome. Originally of Dutch origin, [4] it later contained pupils of German and Italian origin. He also ordered for the whole of France that all orphans and foundlings that were fit for military service would have to serve in the army. The army would become their family.
At first there was little open resistance. This changed in 1812, especially in the 'occupied' parts of the Empire. Napoleon ordered, early in 1812, the raising of the gardes nationale, to protect the borders of his Empire while he and his Grande Armée were in Russia. For example in Holland the classes of 1809 and 1810 had to produce 30,000 men each, to be formed into the premier ban de la garde nationale, and destined to protect the borders, to maintain internal peace and order, to defend the marine-depots and arsenals, and to garrison the fortresses. If necessary a deuxiême ban, consisting of men from 26 to 40 years of age, and lastly the arrière ban, men from 40 to 60 years of age, could be called on.
To maintain peace and order in the cities a garde soldée was created. Although it was assured that this national guard would only serve in their own departments, resistance was strong. In many places force was necessary to retain order and to make the inhabitants to co-operate.
The Dutch were also moved by the sight of the passing through of 'battalions de refracteurs'; consisting of deserters and prisoners of war. The strongly guarded French, Italians, Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch and Germans were in a very bad state. Pitied by the Dutch inhabitants, many managed to escaped with the help of the local population.
Initial Relief
Initially the French Revolution brought some relief to the peasants. The partition of the feudal domains and ecclesiastical landed properties, and the Code Napoleon, gave many of them the chance to start farming again. But as always, most of the land became the property of a few landowners, and because of the demand, prices and rent became to high, however, on the whole the life of the peasants improved slightly. The women were better dressed and the fields better cultivated. Despite the wars, food was surprisingly cheap: wine was 3 sols, bread 2 sols, while day-labourers received about 30 or 40 sols daily wage.
To get married there were no real obstacles for the proto-industrial labourer. The only thing that mattered was the labouring skills and strength of both partners. The amount of land or other property or the consent of their parents was, especially for the peasants, of no importance. Children from the age of 16 and older became independent and didn't ask for the consent of their parents to marry. Also it was advisable to marry, because married men were exempted from conscription. All this was in accordance with the 'égalité-principle' of the French Revolution. But still couples married not so much for love but for material reasons. Labouring skills, rather than property, became the decisive factor.
After Napoleon came to power little changed. Giving up their newly won freedom was not in the people's mind. They treated the mass as a mere amusement. Beugnot, referring to Bar-sur-Aube, concluded the following: "My native region is gaily religious. The men get drunk. Their wives give them horns. The girls have babies fairly frequently. All these people go to mass, many of them even to confession.... Don't imagine there is any fanaticism in Bar-sur-Aube. There is a taste for theatrical display, for the old music of the In exitu Israel and in addition to a devotion to the Republic on which you can rely." [5]
To preserve their inheritance intact the farmers elected the revolutionary method to restrict the amount of children. This was mainly done by coïtus interruptus and abstinence. This development was reinforced by the descending infant mortality.
The farmers suffered also from the continental system. Not only the external trade, but also the internal trade became impossible. It was nearly impossible to export products from one department to another. This is made clear by some examples from 1811: While in Amsterdam the potatoes were scarce, in Friesland they rotted away unused; the weaving-mills in the Department of the Meuse were being closed because it was impossible to obtain flax from the Department of the Scheldt; the Beetroot crop ordered by Napoleon [6] was impossible in the northern departments because there was no seed, while there was surplus in Brabant.
Before the French Revolution great events were something to which the lower classes paid little heed, having no bearing on themselves, and they had no means of obtaining information. The aristocracy and upper classes made sure that the lower classes only knew what they wanted them to know. The French Revolution changed all this. The events that unfolded were events in which the lower classes had to play their part: It was their sons who had to do the fighting in the revolutionary armies. This was a big reason to take an interest in what was happening outside the scope of their own house, street, neighbourhood or region. Whole towns were involved in the departure and return of armies, celebrations, public ceremonies, which all followed one another in quick succession, becoming part of daily life. A good example for this was the joy at the capital at the news of Marengo.
The success of Napoleon couldn't have been more unexpected. It was already known that Masséna had capitulated in Genoa, and only the day before Carnot received the message that Napoleon most likely would have to retreat. Funds were dropping. But suddenly a courier arrived with the news that the Austrians had been crushed, and that an armistice had been signed. Cannon thundered and posters confirmed the event. People poured on the streets, dancing and lighting bonfires. Everyone thought that now the revolution was really over, and that peace was assured forever. A few months later peace was signed with Britain.
Power of Propaganda
Napoleon understood the power of propaganda. Events of this kind were exploited to their maximum. The role Desaix played in the battle was passed over, so the official history was a little bit different from the truth. But the lower classes (and also the upper classes!) didn't bother to dig deeper. They had their hero, and because of this kind of propaganda, they were prepared to follow Napoleon until the end. So it was no surprise that the whole of France, including the royalist Vendée, voted for Napoleon as their Emperor. For us this is difficult to understand. But these classes had for the first time the feeling of belong to something big. So even in 1814 a great part of them were still prepared to fight and die for their hero.
But there were also men who didn't want to be in the army. In Paris in 1802 a riot was caused by the drawing of the lots. The result was 20 dead and 50 wounded, most of them onlookers - old men and children. The same happened in the provinces. To escape conscription some mutilated themselves, cutting of one of their fingers, ruining one of their eyes or removed their eye-teeth.
However, there were other, more precarious matters. One example of these is the execution of the Duke d'Enghien. Royalist circles were shattered by the news of this event but among the other classes there was far less dismay. A typical conversation would be the question "whose that?", and the reply "probably another of those foreigners". The lower classes took more interest in events such as the trial of General Moreau, the suicide of Pichegru, etc.
The interest shown in the church was mainly curiosity: people wanted to see the chapels newly restored to religion. Masses were held with full orchestras, and on certain days people had to pay admission or to reserve seats. Here and there children began to make their first communion, but most of the adults stayed away from the sacraments.
Old traditions that were abolished by the French Revolution, as for example New Years Day and Carnival were reinstated. But one thing most people wanted to get rid of was the 'Décadi': [7] this was the only day of rest allowed by the republican law. The Décadi was the only day people could get married. Also the Sunday had the advantage to be once every 7 days, 52 times a year, instead of 36 Décadi a year. This was especially an advantage for the lower class, whose program on a Sunday consisted of a shave and a clean shirt. But after Sunday was returned, the next step was to return to the Gregorian calendar. Although this step found much more opposition, it was used more and more: the church used it to announce its ceremonies, and the Gazette de France to advertise theatrical performances. And it was beginning to reappear in the almanacs. [8]
The Government also started pulling down many houses and monuments that were threatening to fall or stood in the way of traffic. Many memorials were lost in this way. But the citizens didn't bother. For everything that was pulled down they were given more air in this cramped inconvenient city, counting nearly 600,000 inhabitants.
House Numbering
A problem of an other kind was the systematic numbering of the houses. During the French Revolution the houses were not numbered by way of streets, but by sections. If a street ran through several sections, the numbering came to an end every time it went from one section to another, only to start again in the following section. So it was possible that in one street several houses had the same number. In 1805 a new principle of numbering was adopted: a single series for each street with odd and even numbers on alternate sides [9]. It took 5 years to complete the renumbering of all the houses in Paris. Even then many citizens of the upper class considered their house sufficiently well known to need a distinctive number.
The Parisian houses had up to six floors in which many families could live. On the ground floor the shops were located. People with money, but not enough to have a house by their own, lived on the 2nd floor. On the 3rd floor the people lived with regular wages. On the 4th floor the work-people, and on higher floors the poorest people.
Most of the streets were narrow and dirty, and in many places unmetalled. Except for the two main boulevards there were no wide thoroughfares. The capital was a network of by-streets, blind alleys and passages, where only Parisians could find their way.
The greater problem was the dirt - during the terror the carts before employed for removing the dirt found other employment, in removing dead bodies and victims for the guillotine. So garbage and dirt was piled high in the streets, only to be spread by the rain and changed in a thick slush covering the streets and because sewers were almost non-existing, this was only made worse by the water from the rain-pipes. To improve the state of the roads some were was cambered, this had the effect that after every shower the water poured down into the cellars. Napoleon didn't do much to improve the state of the streets. During his whole reign only 5 kilometres of new sewer were laid down!
A further problem in Paris was the lack of water. Some houses had wells in the courtyards. Also present there were about 60 public drinking-fountains, but most of these were being charged, functioned only at daytime and often ran dry. So most of the Parisians had to buy their water from water-carriers who pulled a cart with a water-butt, or carried a pair of buckets. Many of these carriers found it most economical to fill up at the river, with the consequences that the water was heavily infected. Surprisingly the Parisians could survive this way of living without dying in thousands from diseases. Foreigners visiting Paris suffered more, the water of Paris had a bad name. Napoleon solved this problem by ordering the building of reservoirs and canals. At the end of his reign the situation was much better.
Paris was also a dark city: it counted only 4,000 lanterns of very bad quality, in many cases left unlit to save oil! It was a normal practice that at the theatres lantern-bearers waited for the departing audience in order to lead them home or to their carriages. In the houses it was very dark, only the upper classes had pump lamps, the lower classes still had to use candles. And candles were expensive, costing about 4 francs a pound. So the poorest people simple had no choice then to go to bed when it was dark outside.
As one can notice from the above, life in Paris was very primitive. It looked more like a medieval city then as the capital of the conqueror of most of Europe. The Seine was full of floating mills and boat wash-houses. There were only embankments at a few places and bridges were rare. Something Napoleon also remedied. Every morning herds of 20 or 30 oxen came in from the outskirts, congesting the streets already full of carts and travellers. Paris also lacked clean markets and abattoirs. Public transport was non-existent, the Stock Exchange was housed in a church.
Manufacturers bought young children from the orphanages for their factories [10]. These children were without protection from parents, contrary to most other children in the factories, and became literally possession of their bosses. Complete households worked in factories: in most cases the father of the household was the foreman, and he collected the wages of the household as a whole.
The illegitimate birth rate rose higher as ever [11]. There are a few reasons for this. The social control became weaker. The revolution and the related decrease in influence of the church was one of the main causes: sexual activity before marriage was more accepted. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars were the cause of an increase in travellers of all kind: soldiers, diplomats, merchants, suppliers, brigands, fugitives, etc. This fact was also a cause of many illegal births. A very vulnerable group of women were the maid-servants. Many of them were seduced or raped by their patron [12] or his son. These women dared to say nothing if they didn't want to loose their job. If they lost their job there was only one course open: prostitution.
The French Revolution and it's aftermath were also a direct cause of the bad position of women and the birth of many illegitimate sons: in nearly all cities there were more women than men, the men being taken into the huge armies, to perish marching or on the battlefield. The men that were left came into trouble by the many industrial crisis and the abolition of the guilds, and were forced to break their promise of marriage and to leave their fiancee to find work somewhere else. There was no protection for the unmarried mother. The Code Napoleon included the forbidding of trying to find the legal father. Lastly, another cause of the high illegitimate birth rate was the growing proletarisation and impoverishment. This class was mostly concentrated in the slums of the cities. In this social environment the people didn't advocate the values that the higher classes did: it was no shame to have illegitimate children from more then one relationship [13].
Marriage
The people of the neighbourhood weren't shaken if some maid-servant gave birth to a child not knowing who the father was. By making it easy to divorce by law (1792) and without a counterbalance from the church the people began to think little of marriage. Marriage became a pact between two people that could be made and broken with ease, and could be handy to avoid conscription. The lives of many couples consisted simply of a series of honeymoons.
The marriage had to be celebrated in the decadel temples. And because this could only take place on a Décadi this usually meant a whole procession of couples that wanted to marry. Because of Napoleon's religious tolerance, weddings soon reassumed a more decent form. Priests began to marry people on the quiet. At first these took place without any show, to avoid offending public. Afterwards the marriage had to be confirmed by the civil authorities at the town hall. But many marriages during the reign of Napoleon were arranged in a hurry. Many soldiers married during leave. There was no engagement. Both families came to an understanding (if there was any family at all), money matters were settled, and the marriage was arranged. The husband would soon be on his way to the army again, sometimes followed by his new bride.
Also a new development was the sometimes great difference in age between husband and wife. Especially soldiers, who had made a fortune or even received a title and were before not in a position to marry, attracted young women - young enough to be their daughters. This concerned not only the 'heroes' of the Guard, but also NCO's, officers and even Generals and Marshals: Augereau, Legrand, Mouton and Oudinot are examples of this.
Paris had an increasing number of prostitutes. This development was a consequence of the increased number of foreign visitors to the capital, and the fact that the amount of marriages was decreasing. Estimates are ranging from 50,000 to 75,000 during Napoleon's reign. Against these enormous numbers the police were powerless. Fouché tried to carry out mass arrests, but there was simply no room in the prisons for so many inmates. Thereafter the police contended themselves with supervising the prostitutes more strictly and submitting them to more regular medical examination. But for this the prostitutes had to pay a tax!
Crime
As in all cities Paris had it's robbers and thieves. Coat-snatchers were a real plague in the narrow streets and crowds. Handkerchiefs, snuffboxes, watches, nothing was safe for them. They were a terror to the provincials visiting the capital. Something widely accepted in the lower classes was smuggling. The constant increase in import duties made it more and more lucrative. And smuggling into Paris was not very difficult. In 1800 the city wall could be crossed on most places, and the Customs personnel could frequently be bribed. In time, the smugglers formed complete gangs, consisting of unemployed workmen, vagabonds and deserters. In 1809 even a Lieutenant-Colonel joined them! At one point the number of professional smugglers was estimated at about 10,000, and these fought pitched battles with the Customs. After the substantial reinforcement of the police corps of Paris this became less frequent, however, throughout Napoleon's reign, smuggling remained a great problem for the authorities.
Another problem for the Parisian police - and the police of the whole of France - was the behaviour of Napoleon's troops on leave. In spite of the flattering legend, and beautiful drawings of soldiers enjoying the good company of a beautiful lady during a walk in the park, the troops on leave were mere drunkards, scroungers and ravishers. On many occasions they forced their way into shops, settled their bills with insults, harried women and even beat them up. Being used to the rough life in Napoleon's armies where they had to take care for themselves, they had their own moral code. They thought they stood above the law because they had fought for France and behaved accordingly. Arguments between them were settled by duels, and sometimes developed into complete battles between regiments. On some occasions perfectly innocent citizens were killed for bumping into a soldier by accident. Respectable girls were exposed to the threat of being raped by these 'heroes of the Empire'.
Before the French Revolution the authorities started an action to protect the new-born life. The most important measures were the receiving of foundlings and the establishing of lying-in hospitals. From 1772 on in Amsterdam, followed by other cities on the continent a broking policy was followed for foundlings and left-behind children, so that the parents weren't prosecuted. In 1788 Paris already counted 6,000 foundlings and children that were left behind. A French law of 1795 gave the authorities the responsibility for the 'moral and physical education' of the foundlings. In the climate of 'égalité' they didn't speak any longer of 'enfants trouvés', but of 'enfants de la patrie', children of the country. But there were still the financial problems. Although the Law of 1811 covered the establishment of a medical inspection and supervision on their education, the execution of these measures couldn't take place because their was simply no money for it.
Most mothers of these foundlings just didn't have the means to raise their child, it was not because of a lack of maternal feelings, but out of necessity that they left their child. After the prohibition of tracing absent fathers, no help could be found from that quarter. For many women it was the only way to survive or not to lose their job. In the cases of rape or abuse the motive is also clear. Abortion was strictly forbidden, but also ineffective: the use of certain herbs, or a bleeding being the only common methods. An operation was possible but too expensive for most, and also very dangerous. In Paris a mother could directly after her delivery in a lying-in hospital assign the baby to the foundling-hospital. As already explained above the 'élevage humain' was common in this class.
This class fulfilled their role as moralist, employee and philanthropist. They used their political and economical power, obtained during the French Revolution, to suppress the growing mass of proletarians. The host of love-novels are an indication for the 'romantic love' in the imagination of the citizens. They recognised the fact that love is the principal condition for a good marriage, but beside this it had also to be a rational decision.
Family life and trade or business were frequently separated by the building of houses with separated rooms, or even a separate house. Separate rooms were furnished not only for their profession, but also for the children. Salons were furnished for the receiving of guests. During Napoleon's reign a new style of furniture evolved: the Empire style. This style was an imitation of the antique. Materials that were used were mahogany, citrus-wood, maple and ebony, decorated with gilded motifs.
At the start of Napoleon's reign the fashion in furniture changed from day to day. Although furniture was expensive, the houses were still ice cold. It was difficult to protect oneself from draughts and firewood was expensive. In the morning it took time to warm the house up with a good fire. So it was perfectly normal for the upper classes to keep in bed for a time or to work in their night dress with a handkerchief tied round their head. It wouldn't surprise anybody to be received on audience in this sort of costume.
Much money was spent on paintings of all kinds. It was not unusual to find 50-300 paintings in a house. Cupboards were expensive. Most of the linen and other goods were stored in chests.
Members of the family had their own bedrooms, as did the servants: these even received their own entrance to the house. The wife was exempted from working, and could use all her time for managing the house and raising the children. They chose more and more to restrict their amount of children to preserve the inheritance as a whole. This development came under heavy pressure during the French Revolution. Money became scarce, and many households did go under. Many patriots lost interest in politics. Export came to an end because of the war with Britain. But the coming to power of Napoleon marked the rebirth of confidence in trading and in money. Instead of the dreaded assignats real money appeared again. Landed properties in the neighbourhood of Paris, which were unsold until now, were sold or leased. Dismantled apartments were being refurbished and carriages appeared on the streets again.
Morning
The morning of the middle class included two separate breakfasts: a cup of coffee or chocolate on rising and at about 10 or 11 o'clock the 'déjeuner à la fourchette': a meal of eggs and cold meat. It was normal to take this meal with intimate friends, invited or not. Dinner was held sometime in the afternoon, and varied a great deal during the Empire. Food was relatively cheap during this period. Only colonial products cost astronomical prices because of the continental blockade, including sugar. The people had become so used to sugar that it became one of the biggest expenses for every household.
One of the motives of the French Revolution, striving to social harmony, caused danger for the 'natural order': the women demanded the same rights as the men! In 1791 Olympe de Gorges, one of the first 'suffragettes', published her 'Declaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne'. She ended her life on the guillotine in 1792. In 1792 a law had broadened the possibility to divorce. In France and Belgium many women used this law to divorce on grounds of ill-treatment. So in 1803 this law was changed. From then on a civil marriage could only be disbanded on grounds of conviction of a long term sentence, heavy ill-treatment or adultery [14]. Also the man received possession of all the goods that were purchased by marrying on equal terms, the complete fortune and everything the wife earned: also the wife was trade-unworthy and the man had the guardianship of the children.
The officers of Napoleon's army displayed, just like the soldiers and NCO's already described, their own moral laws. Duelling was a daily business in the Bois the Boulogne or on an avenue. They were characterised by their arrogance. They could be seen galloping through the streets, endangering everyone on them; they quarrelled with the Customs, etc.
The household of the middle class received in this period all the characteristics that would be the example of all classes: domesticity, motherly love, child-care, love in marriage, virginity before marriage, faithful until death, privacy, etc. From now on they would try to convey these values to the lower classes. They also became more and more alarmed by the sexual behaviour of the lower classes. The values that they advocated had at first to be conveyed to the youth. Education was the way to do it. [15]
Holland was a country of merchants, but the continental system of Napoleon officially brought an end to all trading. So to survive, the merchants started smuggling. King Louis, the brother of Napoleon and appointed by him to kingship of Holland (1806-1810), saw the problems of the Dutch. So he turned a blind eye to the smuggling activities, despite all threats by Napoleon. This was one of the main causes for the removal of Louis, and the integration of Holland into the French Empire. The French always thought Holland to be a very rich country, which could deliver much money to the French Government. So in 1810 the Dutch had to pay more then 3 times as much taxes as in France, despite the promise that the Dutch would be treated as Frenchmen. From this time smuggling became much more difficult. Ships lay in harbour rotting, while the Dutch seamen, fishermen and many merchants emigrated to Britain to continue their trade.
At the start of the French Revolution the 'nouveaux-riches' displayed their new won wealth in the restaurants, gambling-houses and theatres of Paris, but this was not without problems. With the removal of the old aristocracy, the knowledge of their way of living was erased and the nouveau-riches would always lack certain talents that are not to be bought.
History knows an interesting mechanism: if a group of people try to imitate the habits and way of life of another group, they will nearly always 'overdo' it. The same happened with the nouveau-riches. It could be noticed in clothing, hair-dress, furniture, banquets, etc. Even the way of living, including the concubines, was copied in a cheap and exaggerated way. At dinners the people gorged themselves, and their balls were funfairs. They mistook luxury for good taste. After Napoleon came to power, and the first émigrés returned to France, many were bombarded with questions about good manners. Many of the nouveau-riches, even including a number of Napoleon's marshals, derived from the lower classes. Before appearing at Napoleon's court they needed a serious training course. The same could be said of many ministers and government officials.
After the creation of the Empire, Napoleon was in need of an officially recognised élite. The creation of the Legion of Honour was to supply this but it received some strong opposition. The creation of such a Legion was a clear violation of the principle of égalité of the French Revolution. But in the end Napoleon got his way, creating a new nobility with 48,000 knights, 1,000 barons, 400 counts, 32 dukes and 3 princes. But during his whole reign his court retained a somewhat military appearance, even when he forced his marshals to wear civilian clothes [16]. How things went on in the salons and on the balls of this period, enough is written and known to most. So I won't cover that aspect.
After the French Revolution the rules of good taste that were the fashion in France astonished the foreigners. "A self-respecting man would refuse to wear anything that was not crumpled. People tried to make themselves older: taking little steps, with their shoulders bent and their chest drawn in, enormous spectacles astride their nose and hiding half their face, they ended by looking like their own grandfathers." [17]
But after the Peace of Amiens the French were struck by the elegance of the British that came to France to see with their own eyes the effects of the revolution and the wonder of Napoleon.
For a time British fashion became the rule. For the women the French Revolution saw the fashion of Grecian nudity, but soon there was much opposition to this. Napoleon wished the women in his environs to display luxury in better taste. In the course of time the dresses became heavier. Napoleon promoted the use of silk and velvet, to help the industry of Lyon. Women had to show themselves as they were, with the very short corset hardly supporting the breasts. Make-up was used extensively, after the example that Josephine had set. The fashion was taken over by the middle class.
From 1805 on Napoleon banned political enemies from Paris. Himself ruling through centralisation, he eliminated the opposition by decentralising them.
Ladies List
In 1812 all prefects received the order from the Minister of Interior, to make lists of the young ladies of the age of 14 years and older, belonging to distinguished families. Only families with an income of at least 50,000 livres were to be listed. But the girls also had to be handsome and educated. The reasons for this were not exactly clear. Some thought it was Napoleon's plan to marry these women to distinguished officers of his army, rumours of which caused great upheaval in the Netherlands. In this way Napoleon could strengthen his reign but there is no substantial proof of this.
At the start of the French Revolution the refractory priests, who didn't want to take the oath to the new revolutionary Government, were regarded as fodder for the guillotine. 1,700 of them were deported to Cayenne to die of fever. In theory the freedom of religion was recognised, but in practice this was never the case. Some of the priests had, to survive, become brigands. Saying mass in the open on Sundays, they stayed alive by robbing travellers. After the coming to power of Napoleon the position of the clergy improved.
When the French Revolution broke out there were three different clergies. First the refractory priests. These never accepted any other authority but that of Rome and the Pope. They were living as outlaws hidden in the country, or as refugees in London or Germany. These included most of the bishops. The priests that had taken the oath to the new government could be divided in the priests that had taken it from the beginning of the French Revolution to the Civil Constitution of 1790, the others five years later to the Republic of the year III. Between these last two groups there were differences of opinion on many points.
Napoleon at first still denied the refractory priests the right to exercise their ministry. But without authorising their return, the Government looked the other way. After a while priests of differing groups rivalled each other for the parishioners, re-re-baptising and remarrying them if necessary. After a while the refractory clergy had the upper hand. But not after many trouble and quarrels, and fights for the churches. In Paris and many other towns the problem was still more complex. In these cities the cult of 'Théophilanthropes' still existed, a philosophical doctrine which Lareveillère-Lépaux had attempted to make the official religion under the Directory. In Paris these men still had the right to assemble every Décadi in fifteen churches, renamed in Temple of Concord, of Genius, of Commerce, etc.
Political Role
For Napoleon the reason for giving the church a place in his Empire was purely political. He knew that for governing the people religion was a most valuable asset. Up to the Concordat the Catholic world had fought the Consulate, as it was the product of the revolution. Parts of France were still in opposition, sometimes even in armed insurrection. The aim of Napoleon was purely to unify the people for his own cause. But also it was another arrow on Napoleon's bow of propaganda. On Easter Day 1802 the celebration of the Concordat took place in the Notre-Dame. The onlookers were surprised by one of Napoleon's spectacular innovations: the troops presented arms and the drums beat a general salute.
But if the change in attitude to the church was only to clear to Napoleon, it was harder to understand for others. General Delmas, asked that evening what he thought of the ceremony, replied: "A fine piece of church flummery! The only thing missing was the million men who gave their lives in order to destroy what you have just established!". Some towns, like Avignon, publicly burned the Concordat. In others the military had to intervene to restore order. But there were also priests who made things difficult for themselves. A priest in Lot-et-Garonne refused to baptise an infant because the godfather "did not belong to his party".
But although religious belief was virtually non-existing among the people, it soon gained ground, because of the legal existence now. A paradox situation developed when Napoleon, disrupting the harmony he had created, interned the Pope at Savone. This resulted in Napoleon's excommunication, but still he was the official master of the clergy.
The church, the same as the middle class citizens, became more and more alarmed by the sexual behaviour of the lower classes. Fighting against the gains of the revolution the clergy could only preach an decent and Christian way of life. It may be clear that this was an impossible task because of the revolution and the point of view Napoleon had towards the church.
In Protestant Holland the parsons were being paid by the government. But after the integration into France the payment stopped: In 1811, they received only 1/3 of their payment, in 1812 they received nothing. Some parsons even had to send their children on to the streets begging for food. Especially in the poor districts of Holland the parsons had these problems; in the cities there were in most cases some wealthy parishioners who would take care of their parson.
The roads in France had become very bad. They were left unrepaired during the revolution, out of neglect and the lack of money. Napoleon did much to improve the roads, but this proved to be such an enormous task that it was nothing near accomplished at the end of his reign. In great parts of France the roads had ruts up to three feet deep! In the eastern provinces the roads had become even more impassable because of the many troops which had passed in succession during so many years. Consequences were clear: for example the edge of the road from Bordeaux to Bayonne was littered with smashed carriages. One day Napoleon's carriage, coming down off the bridge at Montereau, overturned in a ditch. Although two footmen were badly bruised, and Berthier's face was cut by glass from the broken windows, Napoleon was unhurt. But to get him out they had to heave him through a door like a piece of luggage. It took about 24 hours to cover 75 kilometres on these roads.
To cover the expenses of repairing the roads, barriers were set up at irregular intervals, and one had to pay toll ('péage') to pass. Also one had to pay to cross a bridge or to be ferried over a river. The nearer to Paris, the more a traveller had to pay. This system of toll still exists in modern France.
Overnight the travellers had to stay at an inn. One could have a reasonable good meal here, but the accommodation was miserable. The rooms were badly furnished and the beds had coarse sheets, not to speak of the lice. However, in many cases the inns had more guests then they could accommodate. It was fairly usual for two complete strangers to share a bed. This could even mean that a woman would share her bed with a strange man.
Travelling by diligence was a great risk. Even if it was accompanied by a military escort this could not always prevent an attack. The coach could at every bend of the road been held up by brigands wearing masks and armed with pistols: the Gueux of the Nord, the Barbets of the Cévennes and the Chauffeurs of the Midi. They all stated to rob the passengers on behalf of the King. The scum of the nation; deserting soldiers, aristocrats, priests and others caused that terror ruled in every part of the country. In the whole country, even till at the gates of Paris, they intercepted couriers, murdered everyone whose face they didn't like, attacked government officials and held them for ransom, even torturing them to get their money.
In 1795 Anthon Reinhard Falck travelled from Amsterdam to France as companion of a French army intendant, Godart. On his journey he had the following experiences. The first part of the journey was safe. But arriving at Brussels problems began. This city was known by its thieves and swindlers, and the inactivity of the police. On their travel through Brussels, the ropes of the chest behind on the coach were cut. But Godart was expecting such a thing so he also had chained the chest to the coach.
In 1814 J. Boelen, at that time a Marine Lieutenant, travelled back from Toulon to Holland. He describes the risks of travelling. Riding on his horse, he had to stop at a small village to shoe his horse. He describes how a groom managed to steal his portmanteau. At Châlons he met on his journey two men saying to be English, who robbed and deadly wounded a citizen of this city and tried to blame Boelen. Only the power of a Würtemberg Colonel, representing the occupying allied forces in Châlons, saved Boelen from being punished for something he didn't do. [18]
BOEKHORST PETER Te e.a. Cultuur en maatschappij in Nederland, 1500 -1850 (Meppel 1992)
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Beside the well known stories of Napoleon, Madame Récamier, Madame de Staël and renowned figures of Napoleon's 'high society', not much has been written about the 'normal' society. How did the 'normal' people of France live? And what was the effect on our field of interest, the wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars?
The typical worker of this time was not the worker in a factory, but the home-worker. Without the use of mechanical energy sources, and with the help of the working power of his whole family, they wove cloth, spun, sewed bags, wove straw, made nails, etc. Never before was so much work done by women and children. More and more people lost control over their means of production and became dependent on the market. This was the process of proletarisation.
The French Revolution had a bad effect on the appearance of Paris. The streets remained unswept, the houses unplastered, walls and roofs unrepaired. Eight years after the event, the holes made by cannon-balls and the marks of bullets were still to be seen on the façade of the Tuilleries. The authorities had for years neither the means nor the money to do the most necessary repairs on buildings and roads. The houses of the aristocrats were declared national property and sold to the 'bande noire', an association of house-breakers that removed the panelling, mirrors and pier-glasses, and made a fortune by reselling them. What was left was at best to comparible to a ruin.
The shortage of women to nurse the sucklings and reliable foster parents caused a very high death rate. Waiting for their departure to the countryside, the sucklings were lodged in crowded stinking rooms, were a few wet-nurses had to take care for hundreds of sucklings. Did they survive the stay in this 'Chambre de Nourrices', they had to survive the long and difficult journey to their destination across the whole of France. After this they were dependent of their wet-nurse. Not surprisingly, in 1811 60% of all foundlings in Paris died. The death rate of foundlings from the age of 0 to 18 months is assessed at 65-90%!
Napoleon wasn't satisfied with the low morals that existed in France. As already described, especially within the lower classes morality was effectively erased by the French Revolution. The basis of Napoleon's vision on marriage, divorce, education of children, etc., were laid down in his Code Civil. But it was another thing to change the whole way of living and the measure of freedom the people now were used to and even Napoleon's family didn't set a good example. With the exception of Louis all of them had mistresses. Even Napoleon had some "adventures". The upper classes were no better. On the financial side, Napoleon profited from the prostitution at the Palais-Royal and the gambling houses paid him tax.