Bonaparte's Egyptian Campaign

Invasion

by George F. Nafziger USA

In 1797 Napoleon was a rising star, a victorious general ruling a kingdom he had conquered in Italy under the nominal direction of the Directory, which he loathed and detested. The coup d'etat de Fructidor had removed the Council of Five Hundred as a political entity opening up political opportunities for him. His involvement in the signing of the Peace of Campo Formio brought him even more prestige and power. His political fortunes rose with each step and he began to cast about for new arenas in which to push his career even further. Not only did Bonaparte "play to the crowd" for political gain, but he was also discovering the benefits of wealth and power that resulted from his control of the wealth of Italy. In addition, the public support from his aggrandizement of the French military reputation and the expansion of its territory built a power base for his future career. While these thoughts were evolving in Napoleon's mind France was still facing its irreconcilable enemy, England. The invasion of England was proposed and discussed at length. Napoleon perceived three options for the relationship between France and England: 1.) making peace, which was politically impossible 2.) the French army could attack Hanover, but this could provoke a general European war 3.) an invasion could be launched against England, which would have little hope of success or 4.) France could threaten England's commerce with India by taking Egypt. In addition, Napoleon saw the romantic East as a place where a new kingdom could be carved for him to rule. He, no doubt, saw it filled with treasure to be looted for his personal benefit. He must also have seen it as an opportunity where even further military glory could be gained facing an enemy who was technologically inferior and was, militarily, an easy victim. The Invasion is Launched After much debate, the Directory made the decision invade Egypt. On March 2, and April 12, 1798, the it issued the necessary arrets and the preparations for the invasion began. Napoleon was given overall command. Five embarkation ports were selected: Toulon, Marseilles, Genoa, Ajaccio and Civita Vecchia. Admiral Brueys took over the Toulon fleet and prepared it for an unknown destination. Twenty-one demi-brigades were selected from the French forces serving in France, Switzerland, Rome, Corsica and Italy, and directed to the embarkation ports. In addition to selecting the military forces and picking the staff to command the expedition, the Directory selected 500 civilians to accompany the expedition. Of them 167 were the most distinguished men of letters and scientists of France. Not only was this to be an expedition of conquest, it was to be a scientific expedition to the mysterious orient. The "Legions of Rome", as they were called, arrived at their ports and by May 1, 1798, 14,000 infantry, 680 cavalry and 1,160 artillerymen were at Toulon. At Genoa were 6,000 infantry, 855 cavalry and 250 gunners. Desaix found his command at Civita Vecchia consisted of 6,900 infantry, 1,080 cavalry and 250 artillerymen. At Ajaccio, General St. Cyr commanded 3,900 infantry, and 680 cavalry. Such extensive preparations could not be concealed, so the French took pains to ensure that the true target was concealed in an elaborate plan that suggested raids against Ireland and Portugal. The very real threat of a British fleet in the Mediterranean had to be dealt with, even if only with deception. The army was then given the formal title of the "Army of England" to further the confusion. No Secret Despite the care, the scientists proved incapable of holding the secret and word soon reached England that the targets included Malta and Alexandria. The sailings were staggered and the first fleet departed from Toulon on May 19th. The Civita Vecchia convoy missed the rendezvous and headed straight for Malta. The British fleet was delayed by a heavy storm and confusion of the actual target. Nelson had insufficient frigates to keep a constant eye on the French, so they slipped past him and his fleet, arriving in Malta. There was little fight left in the Knights of St. John and Malta quickly succumbed. On June 19 the French departed, leaving General Vaubois and 4,000 men behind as a garrison. The French convoy was to arrive in Egypt without incident, though during the night of June 22-23, the pursuing English fleet barely missed the opportunity to engage the entire French convoy. The French landed the last of their forces on July 3. The French fleet had withdrawn to Aboukir Bay as the transports unloaded near Alexandria. On July 2 Lord Nelson found the French fleet in Aboukir and sank it. Though ashore and unharmed, the French Armee de l'Orient was cut off from home in a foreign and inhospitable land. Adding to their misery, the French began their first march across the arid Egyptian plains. They marched 45 miles from their landing sites to Alexandria. Morale was bad and mutiny near, when on July 9th, 18,000 French arrived in Damanhur. The first clash occurred on July 10, when Desaix's division defeated a detachment of Mameluke cavalry. Mameluke Egypt At this time Egypt consisted of 24 provinces, each of which was ruled by a Mameluke Bey. The 24 beys were formed into a governing council or divan, presided over by a Turkish governor, or pasha. Though Egypt was part of the Ottoman Empire, the Turkish government's role consisted of little more than exacting tribute from the provinces, who in turn took it from the peasants. By the time that Napoleon invaded Egypt the Turkish rule had all but vanished. As the Ottoman control waned over the years, the Mamelukes had become warlords ruling over their separate kingdoms. They had dominated Egypt for over 500 years, but remained true to their Circassian, Georgian and Armenian ancestry, marrying only women from those lands, despite their notoriously expansive harems. Being a small number, they kept their strength up by literally buying young boys from the Caucasus, about 10,000 to 12,000 per year, and training them to be warriors. These enslaved warriors could gain their freedom upon rising to military command. They were undisciplined, yet ferocious warriors, dressed in flowing robes and carrying with them into battle large sums of money, jewels and other valuables as part of their military equipment. They were armed with pistols, muskets, axes, lances and scimitars. They wore no standard uniform and the colours of their clothing was like a glittering rainbow. Their horses were the finest available. Their courage and horsemanship were proverbial, but their speed in retreat could be spectacular as well. The Campaign Begins This force met the French on July 13, in a brief battle at Shubra Khit. The main battle was fought on the Nile between a small French flotilla of five gun boats and the slightly larger Mameluke flotilla of seven gun boats. The battle was pitched and Napoleon moved field artillery up to the bank of the Nile to support his flotilla. The French infantry formed itself into six deep squares with the cavalry and transport in the centre, in preparation for the Mameluke cavalry attack, but it never came. Instead, the Mamelukes swirled around the edges of the French squares at musket range and exchanged shots with little effect. At noon, a lucky shot by the French artillery struck and destroyed the Mameluke flagship and the fight went out of the Mamelukes. They withdrew without permitting Napoleon to come to grips with them. The French advance resumed. The Battle of the Pyramids Around 2:00 p.m., on July 21st, 25,000 French arrived before the village of Embabeh and found find themselves confronted by 6,000 mounted Mamelukes and 15,000 fellahin or armed peasants, under the command of Murad Bey. On the far bank of the Nile stood another force of Mamelukes under Ibrahim Bey. The French formed their defensive formations and the battle quickly began in the shadow of the great Pyramids of Gizeh. Napoleon positioned his divisions in an oblique line of squares and sent them forward. The squares were, in fact, broad fronted rectangles whose frontage was a full demi-brigade and whose flanks were a half demi-brigade. This was done to maximise the firepower they could project as they advanced against the Mameluke cavalry, while still in the security of a square. At 3:30 p.m., the Mamelukes launched their first attack, striking the French right and almost catching Desaix and Reynier unawares. As they charged against the squares, the French pounded them with disciplined volleys of musketry and shells from a howitzer battery deployed in one of the French squares. The Mamelukes responded with cannon fire came from the village of Embabeh. The French flotilla on the Nile soon dealt with these guns and the French, under General Bon swarmed into the village, putting its defenders to the bayonet. Two thousand Mamelukes fled from the village only to be cut off by Marmont, who sent a demi-brigade forward to intercept them. The Mamelukes flung themselves into the Nile to escape. Over 1,000 were drowned and another 600 shot as Ibrahim's troops watched from the far bank of the Nile. By 4:30 p.m., the battle was over and Murad Bey, with his remaining 3,000 cavalry, fled down the Nile towards Gizeh and Middle Egypt. For the loss of 29 killed and 260 wounded the French had killed over 2,000 Mamelukes and several thousand fellahin. The day after the battle the French soldiers amused themselves by looting the bodies of the dead Mamelukes of the wealth they carried. It is interesting to note that the French infantry bent their bayonets into hooks so that they could fish the drowned Mamelukes out of the Nile. Cairo The Mamelukes fled south to Cairo, which they quickly abandoned. The French occupied it on July 24th. Another battle occurred on August 11, when Napoleon caught Ibrahim Bey and inflicted a crushing defeat on him at Salalieh. As Napoleon established himself and a French government in Cairo Desaix was dispatched south. From August 25, 1798, until March 1799, he pursued Murad Bey's elusive cavalry up and down the upper Nile. Actions were fought at El Lahun on October 7, 1798, Samhud on January 22, 1799, and Abnud on March 8, 1799. Murad, now reinforced by as much as 10,000 Mamelukes repeatedly slipped away from the ponderous columns of French infantry, seldom numbering more than 3,000 infantry and some cavalry. The campaign finally ended when the ill-discipline of the Mamelukes caused them to disintegrate from the strain of constant campaigning. The Upper Nile was finally under French control when Belliard captured Kosseir on the Red Sea on May 29, 1799, severing Murad's communications with Arabia. Having been invaded, even though the province was only questionably part of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey declared war on France. They began massing an army and in the Fall of 1799 began to send it south. Britain had become the Turkish ally and had a naval blockade on Egypt that completely closed it to any communications with France. Bonaparte's Egyptian Campaign: Syrian Adventure Back to Table of Contents -- First Empire #10 Back to First Empire List of Issues Back to MagWeb Master Magazine List © Copyright 1993 by First Empire. This article appears in MagWeb (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web. Other military history articles and gaming articles are available at http://www.magweb.com