Modern Tactics in Wargaming

INTRODUCTION

Prior to the 20th Century, tactics usually referred to specific maneuvers and techniques to use on the battlefield. The tactics were drilled into the commanders and troops and variations were few. The "art of war" occurred then on the operational level.

Modern battlefield tactics came full force to the world in May 1940 with the startling demonstration of German blitzkrieg at the expense of France. The tactics of blitzkrieg emphasized flexible concepts and the art of war was pushed down to the tactical level. The Germans, pioneers in modern tactics, credited much of their martial successes to the NCO's who had the intelligence, training, and experience to recognize a situation and devise tactics on the spot using principles of mobility, firepower, and focus. With the World settled down to the serious business of war, the blitzkrieg was dissected and other armies tried, some successfully, to adapt the tactics.

TACTICS VS. TECHNIQUES

The rule-based procedures in tactical wargames are what I call techniques. Techniques are mechanical or legal descriptions of how equipment works and their technical limitations. For instance, artillery spotters, indirect fire, weapon effects, mounting and dismounting from vehicles are all techniques versus tactics. The player cannot change the rules. Tactics, on the other hand, are left out of the rules and up to the players.

The few times tactics get written into rules is under the name of "doctrine." Soviet style doctrine is one we should be familiar with. It usually goes something like this; "platoons must move and fire together and be given the same order." The doctrine rules do not allow a player to get below the platoon command level. Another example of unchangeable doctrine are command radii though this is usually a mix of equipment (and thus technique and command tactics.

One of the benchmarks I judge tactical wargame rules on is their ability to mix with player tactics. The rules should not be so hidebound, detailed, and complex as to restrict or formulate tactics, though some doctrines rules may be necessary. At the other end of the spectrum, rules should not be so abstracted that it doesn't matter what tactics I use, the result will vary little. Bear in mind with all this the scale of the game. Grand tactical games are attempting to simulate company and battalion level tactics in relatively long-term situations and tactical level games are simulating individual weapons and platoon tactics in a brief amount of time.

In my discussion of tactics, the difference is not critical, but is important during play if a player is to have some idea of what can be expected of his tactics. A wide flanking move in a tactical game is usually not going to develop in time and will take weapons out of reach of where they are needed most and allow the enemy to concentrate against you; but a similar tactic in a grand tactical game can cause havoc among the enemy support forces and force him to counter your move. As the tactical scale shrinks, weapons can effectively cover the flanks and finding a soft spot can become difficult. Remember that for the individual grunt, every attack is a frontal assault.

CONCENTRATION

One of the guiding principles of modern tactics is concentration. It has been phrased in several quaint ways; "Don't spatter 'em, boot 'em" [Guderian], and "the day goes to the side first to plaster the other side with fire" [Rommel]. Concentration is getting maximum effective firepower in minimum effective space or time.

The most important aspect of concentration to remember is that concentration can occur in both time and space. Concentration in space is the grouping of a relatively high concentration of power in a small geographical area. Concentration in time is coodinating a high number of attacks in a minimum timeframe. "Maintaining the tempo of attack" is a phrase that relates to time concentration. Both forms of concentration are important. A hammer blow to one particular point may crack a thinly held line, but secondary attacks timed to draw off reserves and pin the enemy is necessary against a strongly held position to create the opportunity for a decisive blow.

Consider an example of concentration in time where speed is necessary to seize a defended bridge. If only one attack is mounted, its failure will mean a considerable loss of time. Mounting a secondary attack simultaneously along a more dii: ficult but lightly defended route will mean the forces will be able to support and exploit successful primary forces or give a quick second chance to take the bridge if the primary attack fails. With a secondary attack, more firepower can usually be brought to bear, friendly casualties can be minimized, and in the case one attack fails, it can still support the other.

When a decisive firefight is at hand, always strive to have as much force forward and firing as possible. If you are emerging from cover and expect fire, bring out the entire force in line or column at one time; bringing out a platoon this tum and a platoon next tum only gives the enemy twice the opportunity to win the firefight. Against delaying tactics, concentration in time, multiple avenues of maneuver/attack, are recommended. This will unhinge and cut-off delaying units instead of playing their game of frontal shoot and scoot. For maximum effect, the avenues of approach should merge to some decisive point. A decisive approach and a decisive concentration, plus a little luck should make you the odds-on favorite to win a tactical engagement.

THE INDIRECT APPROACH

The indirect approach is another tenant of modern tactics. Taking an indirect approach, i.e. doing the unexpected, is designed to unnerve and surprise an opponent or create a set of circumstances more favorable to yourself. Assaulting without a preliminary barrage or using a barrage as a diversion are examples of the indirect approach, as well as taking a more difficult course hoping for lighter defenses or concealment. Rarely, it also happens that an enemy may anticipate your deviousness and leave the obvious path wide open. You should be ready to exploit any situation offering you advantages. The friendly force assumes an element of risk with this tactic to gain results, but the successful tactician can weigh nsk and benefit accurately.

A small advanced guard works well to reconnoiter approach routes. The advanced guard should not be big enough to fight, it should be mobile enough to scoot around resistance. If you are defending against a recon probe, it is generally best not to fire until spotting of your position by the recon unit is academic. When you fire, it should be the minimum force necessary to destroy the unit. Holding your fire preserves your element of surprise. If there is no hidden movement in the rules or the scenario is a deliberate assault, there probably isn't much need for reconnaissance and players tend to use and destroy recon units as infantry or armor, neither of which they are suited to. This is a wasteful practice as units were generally the elite of most formations. Rules, umpires, and players should discourage wasting recon units by using hidden movements, making recon units expensive and elite, and by giving recon units better spotting and hiding abilities.

FOCUS OF EFFORT

In modern tactics, the indirect approach sets up a favorable concentration at a critical point. This critical point must be selected so as to cause the enemy to withdraw or suffer unfavorable losses and disorganization. The Germans termed this focus of effort the "Schwerpunkt"and added penetration in depth to the concept. German tactics stressed the continuous nature of the schwerpunkt, meaning that an attack progressed continually from point to point lead by the officer or NCO on the scene; each attack building on the success of the previous attack and not stopping when an objective is reached. The failing of the "unlimited objective" for the Germans in W.W.II was their tendency to overreach and suffer decisive defeats such as at Moscow, El Alamein, Stalingrad, and The Ardennes.

Notwithstanding these notable failures, the Germans could always count on some degree of success from their tactics. As the schwerpunkt advanced by indirect approach and seeking spots, elements would fan out to either side to create panic a roll up defensive positions thus protecting the flanks of the schwerpunkt.

The critical point of effort may be different from an objective. Your commanding officer (or the omnipotent umpire) sets the objective for a scenario; you have the responsibility of choosing the tactics and point of effort that will gain the objective.

To be successful against a capable opponent, tactics must include indirect approach, concentration, and a point of effort. Indirect approach allows effective force to be applied at an effective point or points. If the approach is successful, then you execute the concentration in the form of massed firepower against a narrow sector or supporting attacks against more dispersed targets. Firepower and maneuver, if applied at critical points and if you win the firefight, will cause the enemy to retreat or face a worsening situation. Once the enemy is leveraged out of position reacting to your tactics, keep up the pressure and with a little luck the whole thing will snowball and you can gain your objective easily.

SHOCK

Mobility and firepower combined (shock) allows the practice of modern tactics. The pinnacle of modern tactics is generally achieved with armored fighting vehicles. Their combination firepower, mobility, shock, and protection make them an ideal weapon for schwerpunkt tactics. In a similar way, the assault is the weapon that allowed infantry to rise in their capability modern tactics. The assault rifle gave the rifle squad the ability put out more effective fire than a light machine gun team and do it on the move. The shock effect of mobility and firepower is a proven winner.

A common tactic is to use direct fire, indirect fire, or maneuver to mislead an opponent as to your chosen schwerpunkt. Harrassing fire and maneuver to the front may cause the defender to strengthen the front at the expense of the flank. Of course, deception in wargaming only works with some sort of hidden movement.

DEFENSIVE TACTICS

There are two basic types of tactical scenarios, the assault where one side defends and the other attacks, and the meeting engagement where both sides are attacking. These two types of engagements are frequently mixed and usually one or both players can benefit from defensive tactics to protect an objective or economize in one area to reinforce an attack in another.

Defensive tactics consist largely of choosing critical points to defend your objectives and balancing between effective firepower and exposure to enemy firepower. Camouflage, digging in and siting weapons on reverse slopes are common methods of reducing your exposure to firepower. Open ground should be defended by firepower and obstacles. If this is not possible or adequate, then use dug-in infantry. Defenses should be thought of as "systems," implying separate components that work together. The defenses should be in depth and reserves for counterattacks maintained.

A common type of prepared defense emphasizes commands spread out in line formation, taking advantage of fieldworks and terrain, and using overlapping fields of fire to concentrate firepower and cover flanks. Depth should be emphasized in the linear defense by the use of defensive patrols to report on progress of the enemy, an outpost line to delay and disrupt the enemy advance, and the main line of resistance. The job of the main line is to concentrate defensive firepower on the attacker, taking advantage of the time bought by the forward lines. A counterattack at a critical point can always be thrown in if the situation permits. Counterattacks should be made quickly against successful assaults before they can establish defenses and widen the breech.

Another type of defense is the strongpoint or hedgehog defense. A group of positions, made stronger by terrain and less by fieldworks, are sited for all-round defense. Endrclement, at least temporary, of the defending elements is likely, but strong "shock" reserves (assault guns are excellent for this) are used to counterattack the enemy flanks and relieve beleaguered forces. The defending strongpoints threaten the flanks and supply of advandng columns and sap strength from the advance making a favorable counterattack situation. Strongpoints work to stall an enemy advance only if there are a number of strongpoints; single strongpoints are easily identified and isolated. This type of defense saved the German armies in front of Moscowin 1941 and deprived the Soviets of shelter in the harsh winter.

Whether in defense or offense, reserves of some sort need to be maintained to meet the unexpected. Reserves should be about one third of your force. The more tactical the scenario, the smaller and closer to the front the reserves are located. The short time span of a firefight limits surprises and makes early commitment of reserves necessary to get use out of them. In the larger scale grand tactical games, reserves can be kept well back, hidden and out of harm's way and quickly moved to a critical point. Generally, the further back reserves are kept, the more of an area they can threaten, but this is balanced by the need to keep reserves relatively near the front for quick commitment. If you can commit reserves to a decisive point quickly, the less force you need to get decisive results.

Take advantage of roads and other fast approaches to decisive points when pladng your reserves. It is a tenant of war that speed can make up for lack of firepower. Reserves should not be significantly weakened because a long front has to be covered, in fact, it may be better to thin or shorten the main line to increase the reserves.

When defending, you should also take advantage of interior lines. Interior lines makes shifbng forces and committing reserves easier for you than your opponent. Interior lines are usually achieved from a convex defense line but the superiority of the road network and terrain behind your line can also give advantages.

OFFENSIVE TACTICS

Certain tactics also apply to the attack or counterattack. The purpose of offensive tactics are to apply shock (firepower and mobility) to the greater detriment of the enemy than yourself. Keeping friendly forces intact and able to respond to changes is implied. When attacking into enemy posibons, in difficult terrain or along obstacles, it is a good idea to move in echelon or wedge versus line or column. Neither echelon nor wedge seriously affect frontal firepower and both protect the flanks of the formation, particularly against infantry. Echelon and wedge also allow trailing units some ability to react to surprises. The formation applies to a particular command level and can vary at different levels. A company may be wedge formation with the battalion in line.

Line formation is used for ultimate firepower effect when there is no flank threat. Columns work well to punch a hole in a line and quickly pour through and exploit.

A common attack formation is two elements forward and one back for reserve and overwatch fire. Overwatch fire is an important concept, particularly for the survival of armor in the age of the missile. To conduct overwatch, some elements in an advance remain stationary to quickly fire at enemy weapons firing at advancing friendly elements. The overwatching units need to have a long range direct fire capability. To make an advance steady without lengthy halts or when advancing in terrain with short lines of sight, bounding overwatch can be used. With this technique, advancing elements stop at suitable terrain and switch advancing with overwatch. The previously overwatching units resume the advance. The switching continues as long as needed. The advent of stabilization systems on modern guns has increased the speed of bounding overwatch as vehicles only need to reduce speed to overwatch instead of stop.

SUPPORTING ARMS

Assault elements should never attack a strong position without fire support, preferably direct fire support. On the defensive, it is much easier to get heavy support weapons in a covered location where they can use direct fire for support of defending elements. Direct fire is much more responsive than indirect fire. Also, direct fire support pieces should generally not be fired except in support of attacking or defending units. The decisive effect of support fire is diminished if there is no threatening attack and the position will be revealed and destroyed before the main attack. Getting direct fire elements positioned for support of an attack will require the use smoke or night.

Armored support weapons such as assault guns are excellent in the counterattack and the arnbush. These weapons can remain hidden and roll-out to firing positions when needed. They can also change positions quickly and survive retum fire. Assault guns should not be used as tanks in front of a line because their lack of a turret makes them vulnerable in a firefight where reaction to the flanks is necessary. German assault guns of WWII also lacked a machine-gun under armor, which made the vehicle susceptible to infantry ambushes itself if not operating with friendly infantry.

Your heavy support weapons make up for heavy artillery naval fire, and airstrikes which are usually missing from a tacticai game. If these forms of fire are available, they are usually too lethal and prone to scatter to use in a firefight and just as likely to damage yourself as the enemy. In a dose combat situation, use indirect fire artillery for interdictive fire behind the enemy lines to disrupt movement along roads. Artillery firing smoke or high explosive can also be used for flank protection of foot and tracked units.

In terms of maneuver warfare, pins and suppressions are often as good as kills. If the objective is to disrupt an enemy attack, suppressing some units with lesser firepower allows you to concentrate greater firepower in a decisive area and contributes to winning the firefight. In a wargame with morale rules, the combined effects of suppression and concentrated firepower on an enemy will likely result in a morale break. In an advance, suppressing enemy with overwatch or moving fire will allow you to continue movement and pass out of their line of fire. If your op ponent has set up an effective defense or support fire, it will usually cost you more in terms of time and casualties to destroy an enemy versus suppressing him.

TACTICS ON THE TABLETOP

In order to accurately simulate modern tactics, the game and scenario rules and the terrain set-up must have certain features. As already mentioned, hidden movement is a must to allow reconnaissance and deception a place on the battlefield. Variable spotting distances nicely complement hidden movement.

Morale rules that reflect the soldier's caution of going in harm's way and his susceptibility to confusion are necessary. Poor morale units tend to stop advancing when fired at while units with good morale can take considerable punishment before they stop.

Progressive damage to weapon systems such as suppression and hit levels is needed to allow for the full effect of small-arms and high explosive.

Game rules need to allow artillery the flexibility it had, or did not have, historically. Most armies make use of artillery missions such as interdictive, barrage, pre-planned, and final protective fire. The flexibility and response of the various missions will vary from army to army and time to time depending on their equipment and training.

The miniatures tabletop should have a variety of terrain to provide defensive locations and covered approach routes. Most places usually described as flat, including North Africa, had slight rises and falls in the ground that could hide large formations. The subtle elevations can be represented by ridge lines. More significant elevation differences are shown by hills.

Other types of cover vary greatly from region to region, but there are basically three types of cover, (1) cover that blocks line of sight, (2) cover that camouflages, and (3) cover that gives protection.

Cover should be placed liberally on the tabletop. Roads usually make the best fire lane but even they can be blocked at ground level by folds in the ground. With all this ground cover, it becomes obvious why hills were such fought over tactical objectives; hills allow a person to see and fire over cover that blocks line of sight. Occupying a hill also has defensive benefits for cover; shots aimed high at a hill miss everybody while high shots fired down from a hill will hit the ground and will likely still have effect.

Roads through hilly terrain usually took short cuts instead of following contours. Road cuts and embankments can be simulated by placing ridgelines parallel and perpendicular to the road

Small streams that restrict wheeled and tracked movement should be a fairly common feature. Fording a stream should not be an automatic process. Larger streams and rivers require engineers to select suitable fordable locations or create smooth entrance and exit ramps for fording and swimming vehicles.

CONCLUSION

This discussion of modern tactics is nowhere near complete obviously. I have tried to keep the ideas generic so they apply to both armor and infantry. Depending on the year, terrain, weapons in use and infinite other variables, the "best" tactic for an combat force can change quite drastically. The change in weapons and 1940 to 1943, particularly the anti-tank rocket, caused dramatic changes in the organization and use of armored formations. No more would dense tank formations roll across defenses as they did in 1940 France. Arguably, the tank was still supreme or at least necessary in 1944, but the other arrns were closing the gap. The main battle tank of today is a product of the arms race between the tank and missile. It is not clear if there is a winner, especially with the advent of small, ground-based, fire-and-forget anti-tank missiles capable of indirect fire. The one thing that has not changed since 1939 is the fact that firepower, movement concentration, and the indirect approach are still critical to achieve success on the modern battlefield regardless of time, place, or resources.